专业外语一：第04讲预习

TheU.S.CourtSystemFederalandstatecourtsintheU.S.areprimarilyinvolvedinsettlingdisputesbetweenprivatepartiesanddeterminingtheguiltorinnocenceofpersonsaccusedofcommittingfederalorstatecrimes.Federalandmoststatecourtsystemsarecomprisedofthreelevels–atriallevel,anintermediateappellatelevel,andafinalappellatelevel.Moststateshaveanumberofmunicipallevelcourts,suchastrafficcourts,thatarelimitedintheirauthoritybytypeofdisputeoramountofmoneyinvolvedinthelitigation.Ahighercourt’sopiniononaparticularissueisbindingonalowercourtinthesamejurisdiction.Thepolicyofcourtstostandbyprecedentandrefrainfromdisturbingsettledpointsisbasedonalegaldoctrineknownas“staredecisis.”Courtsarelimitedtorulingonmatterswithintheirjurisdiction,whichmaybedefinedgeographicallyorbythetypeofcasethatacourtmayconsider.Ahighercourt’sopiniononaparticularissueisbindingonalowercourtinthesamejurisdiction.Thepolicyofcourtstostandbyprecedentandrefrainfromdisturbingsettledpointsisbasedonalegaldoctrineknownas“staredecisis.”Courtsarelimitedtorulingonmatterswithintheirjurisdiction,whichmaybedefinedgeographicallyorbythetypeofcasethatacourtmayconsider.Ⅰ.U.S.SupremeCourtThisisthehighestcourtintheUnitedStates.ItiscomprisedoftheChiefJusticeandeightassociatejustices.ThepowertonominatejusticesisvestedinthePresidentandappointmentsaremadewiththeadviceandconsentoftheSenate.Justicesareappointedforalifetimetenure.TheSupremeCourtmeetsinWashington,D.C.foranannualtermwhichbeginsonthefirstMondayinOctoberandusuallyendsduringthefirstweekinJuly.TheCourt’sprimaryfunctionistohearcasesthatquestiontheconstitutionalityoffederalorstatestatutes.Italsohearscasesonappealfromthestates’highestcourts,thefederalCourtsofAppeals,andthefederalDistrictCourts.U.S.SupremeCourtopinionsarebindingonalllowerfederalandstatecourts.TheSupremeCourthasthediscretiontograntordenyahearingformostcasesbroughtbeforeit.Furthermore,casesbroughttothecourtmayresultinasummaryaction,wherebythelowercourt’sopinionissimplyaffirmedorvacatedandnoexplanationisprovidedbytheSupremeCourtitself.Ⅱ.U.S.CourtOfAppealsTheU.S.CourtsofAppealsoccupythesecondtierinthehierarchyoffederalcourts.TherearethirteenU.S.CourtsofAppealsincludingelevennumberedcircuitswhichhaveregionaljurisdiction,aDistrictofColumbiaCircuit,andtheCourtofAppealsfortheFederalCircuitlocatedinWashington,D.C.whichhasnationwidejurisdictiontohearspecifictypesofcases.Ⅲ.U.S.DistrictCourtThetrialcourtandcourtoforiginaljurisdictioninthefederalsystemistheUnitedStatesDistrictCourt.DistrictCourthearcivilandcriminalcasesarisingunderfederallawandcaseswherecitizensoftwoormorestates(oracitizenandanalien)areinconflict.Atleastonedistrict,usuallymore,existsineachstate.ThenumberofDistrictCourtswithinastateisdeterminedbypopulationandgeographicareaofthestate.Ⅳ.U.S.SpecializedCourtsManyspecializedcourtshavebeenformedtohandlecasesinaparticularareaofthelawortorelieveovercrowdingonthecalendarofacourtalreadyinexistence.TheBankruptcyCourt,TaxCourtandClaimsCourtareexamplesofsuchcourts.TheAdversarySystemTheAmericansystemoflawisanadversarysystem,whichmeansasystemarrivesatadecisionbyhavingeachsidetoadisputepresentitsbestcaseandthenpermittinganeutraldecision-makertodeterminethefactsandapplythelawinlightoftheopposingpresentationsofthetwosides.Incriminalcase,theopposingpartiesarethestate,representingthevictimandthegeneralpublic,andthedefendant.Theirlegalrepresentativesaretheprosecutingattorneyofthegovernmentandthedefenseattorney(usuallypublicdefenders).Theneutralfinderoffactsisusuallythejuryandtheneutralfinderoflawisthejudge,althoughthejudgealsowillserveasthefact-finderwhenthejuryiswaived.AlthoughtheadversarysystemhasbeentheAmericansystemfromthestart,itisnottheonlyreasonablesystemfordeterminingguiltorinnocence.Europeancountries,forexample,utilizetheso-calledinquisitorialsystemofjustice.Whiletheadversarytheorymaintainsthatthetruthwillbestbediscoveredintheclashbetweentheparties,theinquisitorialsystemisbasedonthepremisethatthetruthisbestdiscoveredthroughadisinterestedinquiryconductedbyamagistrate.TheEuropeanmagistrateaccordinglyactsasanactivefact-finderconcernedwiththediscoveryofevidenceratherthanasapassiveumpire.Itisthefunctionofthemagistrate,nottheparties,tocallwitnessesandexpertsandtomakecertainthatallrelevantevidenceisproduced.Bothsidesareobligatedtoassistthecourtinthisregardbyproducingsuchevidenceasthemagistratedesires,includingthedefendant’sowntestimonywhichcannotbecompelledintheAmericansystemduetotheprivilegeagainstself-incrimination.