Pragmatics

PragmaticsWinonaZhangTimelineofPragmaticsIn1938CharlesWilliamMorrisusedthewordfirstinhisbookThefoundationsoftheTheoryofSignsBritishpragmaticianGeoffreyLeechThedevelopmentofmodernpragmaticstoaprocessofcolonization,“thiscolonizationwasonlythelaststageofawave-by-waveexpansionoflinguisticsfromanarrowdisciplinedealingwiththephysicaldataofspeech,toabroaddisciplinetakinginform,meaningandcontext”(1983:2).“WhenlinguisticpioneerssuchasRossandLakoffstakedaclaiminpragmaticsinthelate1960s,theyencounteredthereanindigenousbreedofphilosophersoflanguagewhohadbeenquietlycultivatingtheterritoryforsometime.Infact,themorelastinginfluencesonmodernpragmaticshavebeenthoseofphilosophers;notably,inrecentyears,Austin(1962),Searle(1969),andGrice(1975).(Leech1983:2)”.SomeboostersinPragmaticsJohnAustin1955lecturesatHarvard1962reprintaspamphletHowtoDoThingswithWordsJohnSearle1969speechacts1975IndirectspeechactsH.P.Grice1975logicandConversationHartmutHaberland1977JournalofPragmatics&JacobMeyanindependentdisciplineStephenLevinson1983PragmaticsGeoffreyLeech1983PrincipleofPragmaticsSperber&Wilson19861995Relevance:CognitionandCommunicationJefVerschueran1987PragmaticsasaTheoryofLinguisticAdaptationBlackmore1992UnderstandingUtterance:AnIntroductiontoPragmaticsJacobMey1993Pragmatics:AnIntroductionGeorgeYule1996PragmaticsJefVerschueran2002UnderstandingPragmaticsBigEvents1977,JournalofPragmaticstheinitialvolumn1983，S.C.Levinson’sPragmaticsthefirstbookonPragmaticsG．N.LeechPrincipleofPragmatics1987，IPrA1988,ThefirstChinesePragmaticcoursebook1989，ThefirstinternationalPragmaticConferenceheldinChinaLecture1：OriginofPragmaticsAlthoughpragmaticsisarelativelynewbranchoflinguistics,researchonitcanbedatedbacktoancientGreeceandRomewheretheterm‘pragmaticus’isfoundinlateLatinand‘pragmaticos’inGreek,bothmeaningofbeingpractical’.DefinitionLevinson(1983:6---27)listedaboutseveraldefinitionsaboutpragmatics:Definition1:Pragmaticsisthestudyofthoserelationsbetweenlanguageandcontextthataregrammaticalized,orencodedinthestructureofalanguage.语用学是对在一种语言的结构中被语法化或被编码的那些语言和语境之间的关系的研究Definition2:Pragmaticsisthestudyofallthoseaspectsofmeaningnotcapturedinasemantictheory.语用学是对所有那些未能纳入语意理论的意义侧面的研究。Definition3:Pragmaticsisthestudyoftherelationsbetweenlanguageandcontextthatarebasictoanaccountoflanguageunderstanding.语用学是对语言和语用之间对于说明语言理解来说是十分根本的那些关系的研究。Definition4:Pragmaticsisthestudyoftheabilityoflanguageuserstopairsentenceswiththecontextsinwhichtheywouldbeappropriate.语用学是对语言使用者把句子和使这些句子得以合适的语境相匹配的能力的研究。Definition5:Pragmaticsisthestudyofdeixis(atleastinpart),implicature,presupposition,speechacts,andaspectsofdiscoursestructure.语用学是对指示（至少是其中的一部分）、含义、前提、言语行为以及话语结构各个侧面的研究Definition6:Pragmaticsisthestudyoflinguisticactsandthecontextsinwhichtheyareperformed.(Stalnakeer,1972:383)语用学是对语言行为以及实施这些行为的语境所作的研究。definition7:Pragmaticsisatheorywhichseekstocharacterisehowspeakersusethesentencesofalanguagetoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.(Kempson,1975:84)语用学是一种旨在描述说话人如何使用一种语言的句子来达到成功的交际的理论。Definition8:Pragmaticsisthestudyoflanguageuseandlinguisticcommunication.(Akmajian,1979:267)语用学是对语言的使用和语言交际进行的研究。Definition9:Pragmaticscanbedefinedasthestudyofhowutteranceshavemeaningsinsituations.(Leech,1983:x)对语用学可以这样定义：它是对话语怎样在情景中获得意义的研究。GeorgeYule’sDefinitionPragmaticsisthestudyofspeakermeaning语用学是研究说话人意义的学问。GeorgeYule’sDefinitionPragmaticsisthestudyofcontextualmeaning.语用学是研究语境意义的学问。GeorgeYule’sDefinitionPragmaticsisthestudyofhowmoregetscommunicatedthanissaid.语用学研究人们交际中要说的比实际听到的多多少。GeorgeYule’sDefinitionPragmaticsisthestudyoftheexpressionofrelativedistance.语用学研究人们表达交往亲密程度的方式。FocusandcontentMicropragmatics微观语用学,分相论Macropragmatics宏观语用学综观论Micropragmatics--Deixis:meaning'pointingto'something.Inverbalcommunicationhowever,deixisinitsnarrowsensereferstothecontextualmeaningofpronouns,andinitsbroadsense,whatthespeakermeansbyaparticularutteranceinagivenspeechcontext.Micropragmatics--Presupposition:referringtothelogicalmeaningofasentenceormeaningslogicallyassociatedwithorentailedbyasentence.Micropragmatics--Performative:implyingthatbyeachutteranceaspeakernotonlysayssomethingbutalsodoescertainthings:givinginformation,statingafactorhintinganattitude.ThestudyofperformativesledtothehypothesisofSpeechActTheorythatholdsthataspeecheventembodiesthreeacts:alocutionaryact,anillocutionaryactandaperlocutionaryact(Austin,1962;Searle,1969).Micropragmatics--Implicature:referringtoanindirectorimplicitmeaningofanutterancederivedfromcontextthatisnotpresentfromitsconventionaluse.MacropragmaticsVariability，negotiability，adaptability语言使用的过程实际上是为了顺应而不断作出语言选择的过程。任何语用描写和语用解释都应从语境顺应、结构顺应、动态顺应和顺应过程的意识程度（salienceoftheadaptationprocess）BranchesofPragmatics1.pragma-linguistics:tostudythepragmaticproblemsoflanguageitself,anditfocusesoncontext.Youwon’tgetmoremoney（statement）Moremoneyyouwon’tgetBranchesofPragmatics2.cognitive-pragmatics:tostudytherelationshipbetweenlanguageandcognition,centeringonrelevancetheory.MutualmanifestnessContextualeffectsBranchesofPragmatics3.Societalpragmatics:tost