2015法律英语试题

Answerthefollowingquestionsaccordingtothetextsthatyouhavelearnedthissemester.1.What’stheparalegal;explaintheroleoftheparalegalinthelegalenvironment?2.Describethepurposeofapetitionforwritofcertiorari.3.Explainhowtheconceptofprecedentorstaredecisisoperatestoday.4.Identifythecategoriesofprimaryandsecondarylegalresearchsources.5.Describesomeofthemajorethicalrulesthatgovernlegalprofessionals.TranslationThemainfeaturesoftheAnglo-AmericanciviltrialdevelopedinthepracticeoftheEnglishcommonlawcourtsinmedievalandearlymoderntimes,asaconsequenceofthejurysystem,inwhichpanelsoflaypersonswereusedtodecidecases.Legalprofessionals—judgesandlawyers—operatedtheinitialpleadingstageoftheprocedure,whichwasmeanttoidentifyandtonarrowthedisputebetweentheparties.Ifthedisputeturnedonamatteroflaw—thatis,onaquestionsuchaswhetherthecomplaintstatedalegallyactionableclaim,orwhethersomeparticularlegalrulegoverned—theprofessionaljudgesdecidedthecaseonthepleadings.If,however,thepleadingsestablishedthatthecaseturnedonaquestionoffact,thecasewassentforresolutionattrialbyajurycomposedofcitizensuntrainedinthelaw.Sotightwasthelinkagebetweentrialandjurythattherewasinfactnosuchthingasnonjurytrialatcommonlaw.Inanycaseinvolvingadisputedissueoffact,benchtrialwasunknownuntilthelaternineteenthcentury.Intheearlydaysofthejurysystem,inthetwelfthandthirteenthcenturies,jurorsweredrawnfromtheclosevicinityoftheeventsgivingrisetothedispute,intheexpectationthatthejurorswouldhaveknowledgeoftheevents,orifnot,thatthejurorswouldbeabletoinvestigatethematterontheirowninadvanceofthetrial.Medievaljurorscametocourtmostlytospeakratherthantolisten—nottohearevidence,buttoreportaverdictthattheyhadagreeduponinadvance.AcrossthelaterMiddleAges,thejuryceasedtofunctioninthiswayforcomplexreasons,includingcataclysmicdemographicdislocationsfollowingtheBlackDeathofthe1340sandtheeffectsofurbanizationinproducingmoreimpersonalsocialrelations.Byearlymoderntimes,jurorswerenolongerexpectedtocometocourtknowingthefacts.Thetrialchangedcharacterandbecameaninstructionalproceedingtoinformtheselayjudgesaboutthemattertheywerebeingaskedtodecide.Thephysicalcontrolofathingbyapersoniswhatisnormallyknownaspossession,andiftheideaofpossessionhadremainedweddedtophysicalcontrol,thepositionwouldhavebeensimpleenough.Butthewideningsphereoflegalactivitymadeitnecessarytoattributetopersonswhowerenotactuallyinphysicalcontrolsomeoralloftheadvantagesenjoyedbypersonswhowere.Therearethreepossiblesituationsatlaw:(a)Apersoncanhavephysicalcontrolwithoutlegalpossession,asinthecaseofaportercarryingatraveler’ssuitcaseinastation.(b)Apersoncanhavepossessionanditsadvantageswithoutactualphysicalcontrol,e.g.apersonmayhavebooksathomewhicharestillinhispossessionevenwhenheisawayonholiday.(c)Apersoncanhavebothphysicalcontrolandpossession,e.g.awatchinhispocketoralieninhishand.Possession,therefore,hasacquiredatechnicallegalmeaning,andtheseparationofpossessionfromphysicalcontrolhasgiventheconceptahighdegreeofflexibility.Theoldtheoryofpossession,derivedfromtheRomanLaw,reliesupon(a)corpus,i.e.physicalcontrol,and(b)animus,i.e.theintentiontoexcludeothers.Butalthoughtheseconceptshelpindecidingpossession,theydonotprovidethecompleteanswer.Infact,Englishlawhasneverworkedoutacompletelylogicalandexhaustivedefinitionofpossession.Thehandingoverofakeymaybesufficientbyitselftopassthepossessionofthecontentsofaroomorboxifitprovidestheeffectivemeansofcontroloverthegoods.