克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第八版课后答案(英文)-Ch08

Chapter8TheInstrumentsofTradePolicyChapterOrganizationBasicTariffAnalysisSupply,Demand,andTradeinaSingleIndustryEffectsofaTariffMeasuringtheAmountofProtectionCostsandBenefitsofaTariffConsumerandProducerSurplusMeasuringtheCostsandBenefitsOtherInstrumentsofTradePolicyExportSubsidies:TheoryCaseStudy:Europe’sCommonAgriculturalPolicyImportQuotas:TheoryCaseStudy:AnImportQuotainPractice:U.S.SugarVoluntaryExportRestraintsCaseStudy:AVoluntaryExportRestraintinPractice:JapaneseAutosLocalContentRequirementsBox:AmericanBuses,MadeinHungaryOtherTradePolicyInstrumentsTheEffectsofTradePolicy:ASummarySummaryAppendixI:TariffAnalysisinGeneralEquilibriumATariffinaSmallCountryATariffinaLargeCountryAppendixII:TariffsandImportQuotasinthePresenceofMonopolyTheModelwithFreeTradeTheModelwithaTariffTheModelwithanImportQuotaComparingaTariffwithaQuotaChapter8TheInstrumentsofTradePolicy33ChapterOverviewThischapterandthenextthreefocusoninternationaltradepolicy.Studentswillhaveheardvariousargumentsforandagainstrestrictivetradepracticesinthemedia.Someoftheseargumentsaresoundandsomeareclearlynotgroundedinfact.Thischapterprovidesaframeworkforanalyzingtheeconomiceffectsoftradepoliciesbydescribingthetoolsoftradepolicyandanalyzingtheireffectsonconsumersandproducersindomesticandforeigncountries.Casestudiesdiscussactualepisodesofrestrictivetradepractices.Aninstructormighttrytounderscoretherelevanceoftheseissuesbyhavingstudentsscannewspapersandmagazinesforothertimelyexamplesofprotectionismatwork.Theanalysispresentedheretakesapartialequilibriumview,focusingondemandandsupplyinonemarket,ratherthanthegeneralequilibriumapproachfollowedinpreviouschapters.Importdemandandexportsupplycurvesarederivedfromdomesticandforeigndemandandsupplycurves.Thereareanumberoftradepolicyinstrumentsanalyzedinthischapterusingthesetools.Someoftheimportantinstrumentsoftradepolicyincludespecifictariffs,definedastaxesleviedasafixedchargeforeachunitofagoodimported;advaloremtariffs,leviedasafractionofthevalueoftheimportedgood;exportsubsidies,whicharepaymentsgiventoafirmorindustrythatshipsagoodabroad;importquotas,whicharedirectrestrictionsonthequantityofsomegoodthatmaybeimported;voluntaryexportrestraints,whicharequotasontradingthatareimposedbytheexportingcountryinsteadoftheimportingcountry;andlocalcontentrequirements,whichareregulationsthatrequirethatsomespecifiedfractionofagoodisproduceddomestically.Theimportsupplyandexportdemandanalysisdemonstratesthattheimpositionofatariffdrivesawedgebetweenpricesindomesticandforeignmarkets,andincreasespricesinthecountryimposingthetariffandlowersthepriceintheothercountrybylessthantheamountofthetariff.Thiscontrastswithmosttextbookpresentationswhichmakethesmallcountryassumptionthatthedomesticinternalpriceequalstheworldpricetimesoneplusthetariffrate.Theactualprotectionprovidedbyatariffwillnotequalthetariffrateifimportedintermediategoodsareusedintheproductionoftheprotectedgood.Thepropermeasurement,theeffectiverateofprotection,isdescribedinthetextandcalculatedforasampleproblem.Theanalysisofthecostsandbenefitsoftraderestrictionsrequiretoolsofwelfareanalysis.Thetextexplainstheessentialtoolsofconsumerandproducersurplus.Consumersurplusoneachunitsoldisdefinedasthedifferencebetweentheactualpriceandtheamountthatconsumerswouldhavebeenwillingtopayfortheproduct.Geometrically,consumersurplusisequaltotheareaunderthedemandcurveandabovethepriceofthegood.Producersurplusisthedifferencebetweentheminimumamountforwhichaproduceriswillingtosellhisproductandthepricewhichheactuallyreceives.Geometrically,producersurplusisequaltotheareaabovethesupplycurveandbelowthepriceline.Thesetoolsarefundamentaltothestudent’sunderstandingoftheimplicationsoftradepoliciesandshouldbedevelopedcarefully.Thecostsofatariffincludedistortionaryefficiencylossesinbothconsumptionandproduction.Atariffprovidesgainsfromtermsoftradeimprovementwhenandifitlowerstheforeignexportprice.Summingtheareasinadiagramofinternaldemandandsupplyprovidesamethodforanalyzingthenetlossorgainfromatariff.Otherinstrumentsoftradepolicycanbeanalyzedwiththismethod.Anexportsubsidyoperatesinexactlythereversefashionofanimporttariff.Animportquotahassimilareffectsasanimporttariffuponpricesandquantities,butrevenues,intheformofquotarents,accruetoforeignproducersoftheprotectedgood.Voluntaryexportrestraintsareaformofquotasinwhichimportlicensesareheldbyforeigngovernments.Localcontentrequirementsraisethepriceofimportsanddomesticgoodsanddonotresultineithergovernmentrevenueorquotarents.34Krugman/Obstfeld•InternationalEconomics:TheoryandPolicy,EighthEditionThroughoutthechaptertheanalysisofdifferenttraderestrictionsareillustratedbydrawinguponspecificepisodes.Europe’scommonagriculturalpolicyprovidesandexampleofexportsubsidiesinaction.ThecasestudycorrespondingtoquotasdescribestraderestrictionsonU.S.sugarimports.VoluntaryexportrestraintsarediscussedinthecontextofJapaneseautosalestotheUnitedStates.TheoilimportquotaintheUnitedStatesinthe1960’sprovidesanexampleofalocalcontentscheme.Therearetwoappendicestothischapter.AppendixIusesageneralequilibrium